Politics: A Treatise on Government by Aristotle

Translated from Greek by William Ellis, A.M.
1st issue of this edition 1912
Reprinted 1919, 1923, 1928

Introduction: by translator
A handbook for the legislator, a state doctor, rather than one who has the power to control the forces of society.
For Plato and Aristotle the natural state is the ideal state.

BOOK I
Chapter I
Every city is a society and every society is established for a good purpose.
Chapter II
Masters and slaves, equal adantages for both
The gift of speech prooves that man is a more social animal than the bees or any herding of cattle.
Justice is a political virtue, by the rules of it the state is regulated.  These rules are the criterion of what is right.
Chapter III
Family government
Chapter IV
Subsistence in a family.
Masters and slaves, husbands and wives.
Chapter V
Some men are slaves by nature, and others are free men.
Chapter VI
Some may be slaves as a result of a war.  Others are slaves by nature.  Then a mutual utility and friendship may subsist.
Chapter VII
A political state is government of free men and equals.
There is much difference between a free man and a slave.
Chapter VIII
A slave is a particular species of property.
Plants are created for the sake of animals and animals for the sake of men.
Chapter IX
Money was established as a necessary means of exchange>
Chapter X
Money making is two fold: for the service of the house or for retail trade.
Usury is most reasonably detested. Original purpose of money was for exchange.  Breeding of money: usury is money bred of money.  This is against nature.
Chapter XI
First and most proper parts of domestic management:
-  Skillful in the nature of cattle.
-  Advantages of keeping horses, or oxen, or sheep, or other
    livestock.
-  Comparative value of above things.
-  Agriculture should be understood.
-  Management of arable grounds and orchards.
-  The care of bees, and fish and birds.Merchandise and gaining money by exchange.
- 2nd method by usury.
- 3rd method - wages for work done.
Monopolies to gain money.
Chapter XII
Government of wives and children:
-  wife = citizen of a free state.
-  children = under kingly power of the husband.
Chapter XIII
The virtues of slaves, women, and children.

BOOK II
Chapter I
The polity of those states which are allowed to be well governed.  Things in common:
-  common place to live = a city.
-  wives and children and goods in common as per Plato and Socrates?
Chapter II
Reasons why families should be separate and not have all in common.
Chapter III
In upper Africa there are wives in common but deliver their children to their respective fathers guided by their likeness to them.
Chapter IV
With a common community there would be many improper intercourses betwen fathers and daughters, brothers and sisters, etc.
Chapter V
What manner property should be regulated - common or not.
But people should have education in common.
Disagrees with Socrates re common property, wives, etc.
Chapter VI
Discussion of Plato's book of Laws.
Chapter VII
Other forms of government permit:
-  an equality of goods.
-  forbidding the sale of property.
-  an equality of honours.
-  military provided.
Chapter VIII
Hippodamus designed a state :
-  10,000 persons
-  artisans, husbandmen, soldier
-  lands into 3 parts:
          -  sacred purposes
          -  public
          -  individuals
-  3 sets of laws
          -  assaults
          -  trespasses
          -  death
Chapter IX
-  no right way of managing slaves
-  some states women take it over if not well regulated.
-  ephori - judges nto wells selected.
Chapter X
Public meals often a problem.
Chapter XI
Comparison of 3 best cities:
-  Carthage - magistry of 104 persons
                      Aristocracy + Democracy
-  Crete
-  Lacedaemnia
Chapter XII
Laws of various cities

BOOK III
Chapter I
What is a city?
It is a collective body of many parts.
What is a citizen?
Not defined by a residence.
Complete citizen = having a share in the judicial and executive part of government.
A city is a collective body of citizens.
Chapter II
In common use a citizen can come from either a father or a mother. Others consider how many ancestors have been citizens. "A citizen is made by a citizen maker."
Chapter III
A city is no longer the same if its form of government changes.
Chapter IV
Virtues of a good citizen =
-  safety of the community
-  to know and do well
-  how to command and how to obey
Chapter V
Mechanics and other such are considered imperfect citizens in some states and not citizens at all in others.
Chapter VI
Only one form of government or more than one?
Only one for each state or city.
Chapter VII
Different kinds of governments and good points:
-  A kingdom - one ruler
-  A theocracy - a few rulers
-  A tyranny from a kingdom -only for the rich
-  An oligarchy from a theocracy - only for the rich
-  A democracy from a state - only for the poor
Chapter VIII
In oligarchy or democracy both will enjoy liberty, and from claims of liberty and wealth will arise continual disputes with each other re the lead in public life.
Chapter IX
Oligarchy vs democracy.
Chapter X
Where should supreme power be lodged?
Chapter XI
It seems supreme power be lodged with the many?
Best if according to their laws.
Chapter XII
How to determine what things are equal or unequal.
Chapter XIII
Who shall govern?
Ostracism rule for those too powerful, for a stated time.
Chapter XIV
The nature of monarchies?  Varies.
-  a king for life
-  bound by laws even if tyrants.
-  elective tyranny according to ancient rules regarding time.
-  hereditary monarchy.
Chapter XV
Kings vs aristocracy.
Chapter XVI
Absolute monarch.
Written laws.
Chapter XVII
A tyranny is not according to nature.
Chapter XVIII
Three sorts of government and best will be that administered by the best man.

BOOK IV
Chapter I
What sort of government is best and most correspondent to our with?  How best to preserve it.
Chapter II
Types and possible problems.
-  Kingly: becoming tyrannical.
-  Aristicratical: becoming oligarchical.
-  Free states:  becoming democratical.
Chapter III
Basically 2 forms: ruled by few or ruled by many.
Chapter IV
Best descriptions:
Democracy - when supreme power in the hands of freemen.
Oligarchy- when in the hands of the rich.
Many parts of cities and states:
1.  husbandmen - provisions
2.  mechanics - manual arts
3.  exchange men - merchants, etc.
4.  hired labourers or workmen
5.  men at arms
6.  distribute justice, council, civil wisdom
7.  the rich
8.  execute offices of the state
     governors of city or state
     office of senators
     office of judge
Chapter V
Species of Oligarchies:
-  census determines right to office
-  magistrates men of very small fortune
-  power in hereditary nobility
-  hereditary nobility not controlled by lay - a dynasty
Chapter VI
Species of Democracy:
-  meeting limits to qualify for government
-  everyone eligble for magistrates
-  every freeman right to govern
-  when cities become very large and everyone to govern.
Species of Oligarchy:
-  determined by the laws and enough freetime
-  men of moderate means with leisure time.
-  Few with large fortunes get laws changed to allow them to govern.
-  Some get laws changed to allow son to succeed upon rich man's death.
Chapter VII
Kingly form and aristocracy defined previously
A fifth form = a free state:
      Virtue not in their common case.
Chapter VIII
Free State - mixture of an oligarchy a democracy
Chapter IX
3 ways for two states to combine:
-  Laws combined
-  Rights to vote combined
-  Different laws of each adopted
Chapter X
A tyranny vs Kingly
- both established by law
- tyranny not responsible for conduct.
  object is his own advantage
Chapter XI
What form of government and what manner of life best for communities?
-  A happy life must arise from an uninterrupted course of virtue
-  Very rich
-  In between is best
-  Very poor
Chapter XII
Aristicratical government too much power to the rich.
Chapter XIII
Chapter XIV
Public assembly
Offices of the state
Judicial department
Chapter XV
Choice of magistrates - by vote or by lot
Chapter XVI
Judicial - 8 different courts:
-  inspection of magistrates   -  contracts of great value
-  injury of the public              -   foreigners and murder
-  state causes                        -   strangers
-  magistrates and citizens    -   for small actions

BOOK V
Chapter I
-  alterations in government
-  destruction of each state, causes
-  means to preservation of a state
Chapter II and III
Causes of seditions and revolutions.  Examples
Chapter IV
More examples of revolutions
Chapter V
Causes of revolution in democracies
Chapter VI
Revolutions in oligarchies
Chapter VII
Revolutions in aristocracies
Chapter VIII
Preservations of governments:
-  nothing be done contrary to law
-  no credit to those who deceive
-  census problems
-  no one should have too much power
Chapter IX
Qualifications of officers of top departments of government
Education of children for the state.
Chapter X
Monarchies - corruption and preservation
Chapter XI
Preservation of monarchies:
-  depends on on power of the kings being kept in moderate
    bounds
-  keep everyone busy: pyramids example, or in a war
-  a king is preserved by his friends.
Chapter XII
An oligarchy and a tyranny are of all governments the shortest
duration.
A tyranny often changes to another form.

BOOK VI
Chapter I
Combinations of government
Many species of democracy
Different sorts of people
Chapter II
Democracy, equality and liberty: should elect by lot rather than by vote.
Chapter III
How to establish equality in a democracy?
By numbers, or by property, or ?
Chapter IV
4 kind of democracy:
-   Best - with mostly husbandmen, farmers, etc.
-   Next - mostly shepherds and herdsmen
-   Worst - mostly mechanics, exchangemen, and hired servants
-   Even worst - mostly tribesmen
Chapter V
Laws should be directed toward welfare of the state.
Chapter VI
How oligarchy founded?  On principles opposite to democracy.
Best:  government officers from better part of the people.
Chapter VII
Great number of horse = easy for an oligarchy to establish = military.
Oligarchy regulated by a census.
Chapter VIII
Magistrates - how many, what purpose?
-  same persons not to pass sentence and execute it.
-  guards of city and war.
-  priests, etc - care of religion and temple.

BOOK VII
Chapter I
External goods produce not virtue, but virtue produces them.
Chapter II
Happiness of a man and a city the same thing or different?
Chapter III
An active life is the happiest.
Same life happy for the individual is also happy for state and every member.
Chapter IV
Size of city
Chapter V
Size of a country
Chapter VI
Country and city best by the sea?
Chapter VII
Natural disposition of community members.
Chapter VIII
Things necessary to a city:
-  Food, arts, arms, revenue.
-  Religious establishment - a court
-  Personel to handle above.
Chapter IX
Priests in a class to themselves
Classes of people in  a city or country are usually in more than one class.
Chapter X
Husbandmen and soldiers should be separate.
Common meals in some cities.
Religious worship paid by the state.
Land - 1/2 to individuals, 1/2 to state.
Of state land - 1/2 to common meals, 1/2 for religious purpose
Chapter XI
A city needs good position for:
-  Health
-  Business facilities
-  Defense
-  Water
-  Wall protection
Chapter XII
Public tables for eating
Temples for worship
A large public square
A separate square for buying and selling.
Chapter XIII
What numbers and sort of people?
Chapter XIV
Education
Chapter XV
Reason and intelligence come with maturity.
Chapter XVI
Matrimony and nuptial contact.
Ages of a man and a woman.
Ages for having children
Best time to marry - women = 18, men = 37. Bodies at perfection
Winter best time to marry.
Chapter XVII
Food and care for children:
-  milk, not wine
-  cold weather good
-  do not teach untl age 5
-  disputes between boys contribute to their growth.
-  never in company of slaves
-  educate at home until age 7
-  forbid speaking forbidden speech
-  2 stages = 7 to puberty, puberty to 21

BOOK VIII
Chapter I
Main Education should be public.
Chapter II
Teach to improve reason and rectify morals.
Chapter III
For Boys:
-  Reading
-  Gymnastic exercises - to produce courage
-  Music
-  Painting
Chapter IV
Exercising to improve body.
Chapter V
-  Music - amusement and pleasure - tends to produce virtue.
-  To instruct, to amuse, or for vacant hours
-  Tends to improve manners and souls.
-  Connection between harmony and rythm.
Chapter VI
Good to sing and play instruments.
Good to learn the practical parts.
Chapter VII
Harmony and rythm in music.
Doric and Phrygian music
Lydian music very good for children.

Complete index at end.
Finished reading 6/6/2011.








 

The Ethics of Aristotle

Aristotle, 384 BC-322 BC
Produced by Ted Garvin, David Widger, and the DP Team.

BOOK I
VII
Chief Good = Happiness
X
Happy is the man who works in perfect virtue and is furnished with sufficient external goods.
XII
Encomia: Happiness belongs to the class of things precious and final.
XIII
Excellence of a man's soul, in regard to Happiness.
The Soul consists of the Irrational and the Rational.
Rational part contains Reason.
Irrational: desire or appetion.
Ecellence of man divided to two classes: Intellectual and Moral.

BOOK II
I
II
Right Reason
Self Mastery and Courage and other Virtues:
  Spoiled by the excess and defect, but by mean state are preserved.
VII
Mean state needed, not excess or defect:
_ In respect of fears and confidence or boldness.
_ In respect of pleasures and pains.
_ In respect of giving and taking wealth.
_ In respect of wealth
_ In respect of honour and dishonour.
_ In respect of anger.
_ In respect to relaxation and amusement.
_ In respect to all things which occur in daily life.
_ In respect of truth.

IX
The main state is in all things praiseworthy.
We must sometimes deflect toward excess and sometimes toward defect = the easiest method of hitting on the mean.

BOOK III
I
Voluntary and involuntary actions
II
Acting because of ignorance and acting with ignorance.
Moral Choice is plainly voluntary.
Lust and anger.
Wish, opinion: vs Moral Choice.
III
Deliberation respecting practical matters within our own power.
Vice is in our power, so too is forbearing.
Courage and the Brave man.
VII
Courage is a main state in respect of objects inspiring boldness or fear.
VIII
Courage of Citizenship
Courage of Experience and Skill
Courage of Animal Spirit
Courage of the Sanguine and Hopeful
Courage of Ignorance
IX
Boldness and Fear in Courage.
X
Perfected Self-Mastery and bodily Pleasures.
XI
Lusts or desires.
The man of Perfected Self -Mastery.
XII
Cowardice as a confirmed habit seem to be voluntary.
BOOK IV
I
Liberality in giving and receiving weath.
Mean state vs Prodigality and Stinginess.
II
Magnificence vs Meanness or Vulgar Profusion.
III
Great-mindedness vs Vain or Small-minded.
Honour then and dishonour is especially th object-matter of the Great-minded man.
V
Meekness vs Anger or Angerlessness.
Choleric and Cross-grained = versions of Anger.
VI
Friendship vs Cross and Contentious or Over-Complaisant.
VII
Truthful vs Exaggerator or Reserved.
Braggarts vs Reserved.
VIII
Jocularity vs Buffoons and Vulgar or Clownish and Stern.
Tact and Easy Pleasantry.
IX
Shame is more a feeling rather than a moral state (more for youth).
BOOK V
I
Just vs Unjust men. Follow laws or not.
Justice often thought of to be the best of the Virtues.
II
More than one kind of Justice; the lawful and the equal. (Virtue)
The Unjust = the unlawful and the unequal. (Vice)
III
The Just and the Unjust:  Proportions.
IV
Corrective: gain and loss of the good, decisions of a judge.
Just and judges are both of the mean.
V
Reciprocation and voluntariness and involuntariness of actions.
Money is a medium to measure all things, a representative of Demand. (Greek = nomisma)
VI
VIII
Voluntary and involuntary actions.
Misadventure or a Mistake?
IX
It is a characteristic of the equitable man to take less than his due.
Just and Equitable are identical - Equitable better of the two.
XI
Can a man deal unjustly by himself? Suicide is harmful to the community.  Usually the answer is no.

Book VI
The mean is according to the dictates of Right Reason.
II
Intellect and Will are connected.
IV
Making and Doing are two different things.
Art involves Making. Art is a state of mind, apt to Make, conjoined with true Reason.
V
Practical Wisdom: must be a state if mind true, conjoined with Reason, and apt to Do.
VI
Intuition.
VIII
Science, the most accurate of all Knowledge.
Scientific stays the same, the Practically Wise varies.
Science is the union of Knowledge and Intuition.
IX
Good Cousel is a Rightness of deliberation of such nature as is apt to attain good.
X
Judiciousness consists in employing the Opinionative faculty in judging things which come within the province of Practical Wisdom.
XI
Practical Intuition and Practicallywise.
XII
Science makes Happiness.
Cleverness.
A man can not be a Practically-Wise without being a good man.
XIII
Natural Virtue and Matured Virtue.
APPENDIX
On [Greek: epistaemae]

Book VII
I
Vice, Imperfect Self-Control, and Brutishness.
Virtue, Self-Control, and Superhuman.
II
III
IV
Self-Control and Endurance
Imperfect Self-Control and Softness
V
Brutish and Morbid Imperfection of Self-Control.
VI
Imperfect Self-Control in respect to Anger or Lust.
VIII
X
Practical Wisdom and Imperfect Self-Control not in the same man.
XII
Pleasure and Pain.
Is Pleasure not good or the Chief Good?
No Pleasure is the work of any Art.
The man of Perfected Self-Master avoids Pleasures.
Children and brutes pursue Pleasure.
XIII
Bodily Pleasures good?
XIV
Why are Bodily Pains bad?
Bodily Pleasure drives out Pain.

Book VIII
I
Friendship seems to be the bond of Social Communities.
Where people are in Friendship Justice is not required.
Common sayings: "Like will be like," "Birds of a feather."
II
Friendship = Kindliness between persons who reciprocate it.
III
Motives of Friendships:
-  Utility
-  Pleasure
-  Hospitality
IV
Secondary Friendships
V
Friendship of companionship.
VII
Friendship of unequals:
- father and son
- ruler and ruled
- husband and wife
etc.
VII
IX
The goods of friends are common.
Justice increases with the degree of Friendship.
X
Political Constitutions, 3 kinds of Friendship:
- Kingship, Aristocracy, Timocracy (from weath), Monarchy.
  (Despotism is corrupt, pursuing for its own good)
- Oligarchy
- Democracy
In Domestic life:
Father and Sons = Kingship
Husband and Wife = Aristocracy or Oligarchy
Brothers = Timocracy
Families with no head = Democracy
XI
In Despotism little or no Friendship or Justice.
XII
All Friendship is based on Communion and Hospitality.
The Friendship of Kindred is of many kinds.
XIII
XIV
In unequal Friendships Quarrels arise and then Friendships may break up.

BOOK IX
I
A Friendship comes to be broken up because the motives to it cease to exist.
With specified award a friend should be content.
II
Questions regarding obligations to help others.
III
Questions regarding dissolving Friendships.
IV
Changing characteristics of a man later in life.
V
Kindly Feelings resembling Friendship.
VI
Unity of Sentiment is connected with Friendship.
VII
Benefactors related to Friendship.
VIII
Is it right to love one's self best or someone else?
IX
Will the Happy man want Friends or not?
The Happy man does need Friends.
X
Limits on the number of Friends.
XI
Are Friends most needed in Prosperity or Adversity?

BOOK X
I
Pleasure.
II
Is Pleasure the Chief Good?
III
Pleasures differ in kind.
Pleasure is not th Chief Good nor is every kind of it Choiceworthy.
IV
Pleasure is not a Movement.
VI
Happiness has no lack of anything but is self-sufficient.
VII
Excellence and self-sufficiency.
VIII
Pure Intellect is separate and distinct.
Moral Happiness
IX
How one may acquire the faculty of Legislation.

NOTES by interpreters:
Collections of Laws and Constitutions.
The Science of Society
Moral Philosophy
Ehtics Proper
The detail of Civil Government

Reading complete on 5/28/2011
Sharing posted on my FaceBook page.

The Republic by Plato

Book I:
Justice and Injustice
Justice = virtue and happiness
Virtue and wisdom or evil and folly

Book II:
God is perfectly simple and true in word and deed; he changes not; he deceives not, either by sign or word, by dream or waking vision.

Book III:
Can any man be courageous who has the fear of death in him?
Education, music, gymnastics, guardians.

Book IV:
Happiness of diferent classes of people.
Causes of the deterioration of the arts:
        Wealth and poverty.
Size of a State and limits of territory.
Four virtues of a perfect State:
     _   Wisdom
     _   Courage
     _   Temperance
     _   Justice

Book V.
Wisdom vs opinions.
Guardians of the State.
Guardian wives and children in common.
Philosophers in charge of the State.

Book VI.
True and false philosophers.
The intellectual world and the visible world.
Four faculties of the soul:
-  reason
-  understanding
-  faith (or conviction)
-  perception of shadows

Book VII.
Head of state should be a philosopher educated in:
-  War and peace
-  Arithmetic
-  Geometry, plane and solid
-  Astronomy
-  Harmony
-  Have a dialectic mind = discussion and reason by dialogue.

Book VIII.
Four types of constitutions: Best to worst.
1.  Aristocracy - by best qualified (Crete and Sparta)
1a.  Timocracy - based on weath
2.  Oligarchy - government by the few
3.  Democracy - government by the rich for the poor
4.  Tyranny - government with absolute power vested in a single ruler.

Book IX.
Various kinds of leaders and how they got that way:
Tyrants = most unhappy
Democrats
Oligarchs
Timocrats
Aristocrats or Royals = happiest
Three classes of men:
Lovers of wisdom, lovers of honor, lovers of gain.

Book X.
Homer and poets = imitators, copy images of virtue and the like.
Paintors also are imitators.
Users of objects, makers, and imitators.
The arts of measuring, numbering, and weighing.
Soul is immortal.
Just and unjust - rewards and punishment.
Heaven and earth.


 

Reading Backward Over 2000 Years

Finished reading ebook back over 100 years: On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin (1609-1882).
Now starting to read back over 2000 years:
The Republic by Plato ( 417-347 BC).
Philosopy of logic, natural science, ethics, politics by Aristotle ( 384-322 BC).

All are ebooks available for free free from Amazon.